Technological Developments from the Iron Age to 21st Century

From the Iron Age to the 21^st Century, there had been a lot of inventions and technological developments that had been discovered that further lead to present-time science and technology developments. These developments that were invented before are still used today to better improve our society.

The following are the summary of the inventions from Iron Age to the 21^st century.

Developments in the Stone Age

Developments in the Iron Age

Developments in the Bronze Age

Inventions and Technological Developments by the Chinese

Mechanical Engineering

Science and Technology in the middle Ages

Technological Developments during the Industrial Revolution

Scientific Revolution

Stone Age Inventions

1.      Fire

In his fight for survival, Neanderthal man had fire, which he used for light, heat, and to harden the tips of his spears.

    2.   Hand axes, scrapers, knives, awls and spear points

A souvenir sheet from Gabon, Scott 685, shows some of the standard tools, made from stone and flint, which would have been used by Neanderthal man and his Upper Paleolithic successors. A variety of hand axes, scrapers, knives, awls and spear points were in use. The hand axe, which could be held in the palm of the hand, was Neanderthal man’s Swiss army knife. He used it for cutting, scraping, butchering, prying up roots, and cleaning animal skins. Excavations at Neanderthal sites like Le Moustier in France have shown that tools were produced in specific areas, which may have been Stone Age manufacturing complexes.

    3.      Hunting

Once thought to be a scavenger incapable of hunting, Neanderthal man was, in fact, a superb hunter. Some of the animals he hunted—aurochs, cave bears, wild boars, and mammoths—were ferocious, dangerous and unpredictable.

4.      Rudimentary language. The hunter subjected himself to the possibility of being mauled, mangled or killed each time he confronted his quarry. For that reason, Neanderthals hunted in groups, which afforded them greater protection. Hunters had to agree upon a plan of attack, cooperate in killing the trapped animal and, afterward, devise a means to get the carcass home. That presupposed a rudimentary language.

5.      Clothing

The skins, pelts, tusks, and antlers of dead animals were used for other needs of the clan. A North Korean first day cover shows a prehistoric woman making an item of fur clothing from an animal pelt. It took great skill to render skins supple enough to be worn as clothing.

6.      Burial

Neanderthals were the first to bury their dead. The use of red ochre played a prominent role in their burials. Bones found at many Neanderthal burial sites were stained with the red pigment. It is unknown whether the ocher furnished evidence of some sort of body painting or whether a red wrap originally covered the body but disintegrated with time, leaving its color on the bones.

  7.      Projectiles. Modern humans introduced new and better tools. In hunting, the Cro-Magnon knew how to use projectiles.

8.      Bows and arrows

The newcomers could hurl javelins and use bows and arrows, which made hunting a lot easier and safer.

9.      “Mobile homes”

Stone Age man did not live in caves and rock shelters alone. A growing body of evidence shows that he had other dwellings made of wood, mammoth bones, grasses, and hides. Prehistoric man probably invented these “mobile homes” so that he could venture further away from his home cave in search of the animals he depended upon for food.

    10.  Transportation

Stone Age people also made inroads on developing methods of transportation. Rock carvings have been found in Norway, which show men in skin boats hunting seal and porpoise. Such boats were well adapted to cold climates where waters were filled with floating ice. The modern Eskimo umiak is very similar to these prehistoric boats.

     11.  Sledge

Prehistoric people also invented the sledge, used from Scandinavia to the Urals. This facilitated movement of heavy loads over both snow and dry land. The great trilithons at Stonehenge were brought on sledges to their erection site on Salisbury plain in Wiltshire, England.

12.  Skiing

Stone Age people were also the first skiers. As a means of getting around, skis have been with us for a long, long time. A stamp from Norway, Scott 486, shows a prehistoric rock carving of a figure on skis holding a pole.

13.  Ochre

Neanderthal man was the first to use ochre as a crayon for marking on rock but Cro-Magnon man carried painting to sublime heights. The breathtaking animal murals painted on cave walls and vaults in France and Spain are testimony to his well-developed aesthetic sense.

14.  Decorative objects

Many decorative objects were fashioned from stone, bone, wood, antler, and ivory. A carved elk’s head staff is shown on a Lithuanian stamp, Scott 579. A sculpture from the Lepenski Vir archaeological site in Serbia is depicted on Yugoslavia, Scott 1205. The sculpture blends human and fish characteristics. The stamp, Aland Islands Scott 95, gives an example of Neolithic pottery.

15.  Religion. Stone Age people demonstrated the first glimmerings of a religious sense with their production of Venus figurines. Such female figurines have been found in many parts of the world dating to the same era.

Iron Age Inventions

1.      Weaving combs made from bone, dating from the early Iron Age (Devizes Museum, Wiltshire, England). Finds from the early phase of the Iron Age, corresponding to the 6th-century BC Hallstatt culture of Central and Western Europe, consist mainly of weapons and jewelry.

2.      Funerary urn in the shape of a house with lid, dating to the 9th century BC, from the necropolis of Osteria dell'Orsa, near Rome, Italy. The Iron Age Villanovan culture that spread through Italy between the 10th and 8th centuries BC is characterized by greater skills in metallurgy and a gradual increase in the use of iron, as well as by the practice of cremation, in which ashes would be placed in an urn in the ground.

3.      Tools of the Iron Age. Metallurgical knowledge and iron objects spread from Asia Minor around 1200 BC, reaching England around 700 BC. The new technology enabled the spread of cheap and durable metal tools and weapons – such as the hook, axe-head, and spearheads pictured here – as well as bringing with it new patterns of settlement. (Museum of London).

4.      The salt industry played a major part in the economy of the Halstatt peoples, the earliest Iron Age culture in central Europe. An exceptionally rich cemetery was excavated at Hallstatt in the 19th century, revealing graves that spanned the transition period from Bronze to Iron Age. Objects of both metals were recovered, and stages in the evolution of the sword in both metals provided a relative chronology. Late Hallstatt chiefdoms are regarded as precursors of the Celtic hierarchical systems.

5.      Alloy steel was produced by adding carbon during the smelting process.

Mechanical Engineering

1.    Water-raising Machines

• ·         Shaduf

The  most  ancient water-raising machine is  the  shaduf,  a counterweighted  lever  from which a bucket is suspended  into  a well  or  stream.  It appears in illustrations from as early as 2500 B.C. in Akkadian reliefs and is still in use today in parts of the Middle East.

• ·         Screw or Water Snail

Other traditional water-raising machines, introduced between the third and first centuries B.C., include the screw, or water snail, whose invention is attributed to the great mathematician Archimedes.  It consists of a helical  wooden blade  rotating  within a barrel like wooden cylinder,  a  design that  could  not  push water up inclines greater  than  about  30 degrees, although 20 degrees was more common.

• ·         Noria

          Higher lift was achieved by the noria, a large wheel driven by the velocity of the current.  On the outer rim a series of compartments are fitted in between a series of paddles that  dip into  the water and provide the propulsive power.  The water is scooped up by the compartments, or pots, and is discharged into a head tank or an aqueduct at the top of the wheel.  Norias could be made quite large.  The well-known wheels at Hama on the river Orontes in Syria have a diameter of about 20 meters.  The noria is self-acting, and its operation thus requires the presence of neither man nor beast.  It is, however, expensive to build and maintain.

• ·         Saqiya

          The saqiya is probably the most widespread and useful of all the water-widespread and useful of all the water-rising  machines that  medieval  Islam inherited and improved.  It is a  chain  of pots  driven by one or two animals by means of a pair  of  gears.  The  animals  push a drawbar through a circle,  turning  an  axle whose  pinion  meshes with a vertical gear. The  gear  carries  a bearing for the chain of pots, or pot garland--two ropes  between which  earthenware  pots  are suspended.  The chain  of  pots  is optimal  for  raising comparatively small amounts of  water  from  comparatively deep wells.

2.     Windmill

The first windmill   was  invented  in  the  seventh   century   in Afghanistan, where waterpower was lacking.  The rotor turned on a vertical axis, a design that spread throughout much of Asia.  The Muslims never adopted the European windmill, with its  horizontal axis,  although  the Crusaders erected such  windmills  in  their castles.

The  more  powerful  vertical wheels came  in  two  designs: undershot and overshot.  The former is a paddle wheel that  turns under  the impulse of the current.  The overshot  wheel  receives water  from above, often from specially constructed channels;  it thus adds the impetus of gravity to that of the current.

List of Mechanical Devices of Medieval Islam

1.      Wind-powered fountain

In the 9th century, the Banū Mūsā brothers designed the earliest known wind-powered fountains. Their Book of Ingenious Devices described the construction of several wind-powered fountains, one of which incorporated a worm-and-pinion gear.

2.       Mercury-powered automata

One of the clocks invented by Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in 11th-century Spain incporated a "complicated and ingenious system which, at the top of each hour, puts into motion a series of mechanical automata, including mechanical snakes, women and men which function through a system based on water, mercury and pulleys.”

3.    Programmable humanoid robot band

Al-Jazari (1136–1206) created the first recorded designs of a programmable humanoid robot in 1206, as opposed to the non-programmable automata in ancient times. Al-Jazari's robot was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties.

4.    Peacock fountain with automated humanoid servants

Al-Jazari's "peacock fountain" was a sophisticated hand washing device featuring humanoid automata as servants which offer soap and towels.

5.    Bayonet fitting

Al-Jazari's candle clock in 1206 employed, for the first time, a bayonet fitting, a fastener mechanism still used in modern times.

6.    Boiler with tap

The Banu Musa brothers' Book of Ingenious Devices describes a boiler with a tap to access hot water. The water is heated through cold water being poured into a pipe which leads to a tank at the bottom of the boiler, where the water is heated with fire. A person can then access hot water from the boiler through a tap.

7.    Bolted lock and mechanical controls

According to Donald Routledge Hill, Al-Jazari first described several early mechanical controls, including "a large metal door...and a lock with four bolts."

8.    Conical valve

This was a mechanism developed by the Banu Musa and of particular importance for future developments. It was used in a variety of different applications, including its use as "in-line" components in flow systems, the first known use of conical valves as automatic controllers.

9.     Crank-slider mechanism

A crank-driven water pump by Al-Jazari employed the first known crank-slider mechanism.

10.    Elevated battering ram

In 1000, the Book of Secrets by the Arab engineer Ibn Khalaf al-Muradi in Islamic Spain described the use of an elevator-like lifting device, in order to raise a large battering ram to destroy a fortress.

11.   Fountain pen

The earliest historical record of a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. In 953, Al-Muizz Lideenillah, the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen which would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen which held ink in a reservoir and delivered it to the nib, though the method of operation is unknown and no examples survive.

12.   Gate operator

The first automatic doors were created by Hero of Alexandria and Chinese engineers under Emperor Yang of Sui prior to Islam. This was followed by the first hydraulics-powered automatic gate operators, invented by Al-Jazari in 1206.Al-Jazari also created automatic doors as part of one of his elaborate water clocks.

In the 9th century, the Banū Mūsā brothers invented a number of automata (automatic machines) and mechanical devices, and they described a hundred such devices in their Book of Ingenious Devices. Some of the devices that make their earliest known appearance in the Book of Ingenious Devices include:

• ·         Differential pressure
• ·         Double-concentric siphon
• ·         Fail-safe system
• ·         Float chamber
• ·         Float valve
• ·         Hurricane lamp
• ·         Self-feeding lamp and self-trimming lamp
• ·         Trick drinking vessels
• ·         Plug valve
• ·         Self-operating valve

Resources:

Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East by Donald R. Hill

http://www.enotes.com/topic/List_of_inventions_in_medieval_Islam

Inventions and Developments by the Chinese

Writing

    A group of ancient tombs have been discovered in recent years in Shandong Province which date back 4,500 years. Among the relics are about a dozen pottery wine vessels, which bear one character each. These characters are found to be stylized pictures of some physical objects, and so are called pictographs.  

By 1700 BC, symbols were carved on oracle bones and tortoise shells. These are thought to be the first true Chinese writing.  These picture words underwent a gradual evolution over the centuries until the pictographs changed into "square characters," some simplified by losing certain strokes and others made more complicated but, as a whole, from irregular drawings they became stylized forms.

Magnetic compass

As early as 500 BC, Chinese scientists had studied and learned much about magnetism in nature. Scientists learned to "make magnets" by heating pieces of ore to red hot temperatures and then cooling the pieces in a North/South position. The original lacquered earth plate, dating to the 3rd century BC, is currently on display at the Museum of Chinese History. Later, the magnets were placed on bronze plates marked with directional bearings. Compasses were first used in Feng Shui, the layout of buildings.  By 1000 AD, navigational compasses were widely used on Chinese ships, enabling them to navigate without stars in view.

Movable Sails & Rudder

By 100 AD,  Chinese shipbuilders invented the stern post rudder and watertight compartments for ship's hulls. By 200 AD, they used several masts and the redesigned the basic square sail with the fore-and-aft rig.  This allowed the ship to sail into the wind. With these inventions, the Chinese trader and explorer Zheng Ho sailed as far as Africa between 1405 and 1433.

Coal & Iron Refining

Iron was smelted in China by the 4th century BC, and steel was perfected by the 400's A.D. using coal as a high temperature fuel. By having good refractory clays for the construction of blast furnace walls, and the discovery of how to reduce the temperature at which iron melts by using phosphorus, the Chinese were able cast iron into ornamental and functional shapes.  This expertise allowed the production of pots and pans with thin walls. With the development of annealing, ploughshares, longer swords, and even buildings were eventually made of iron. 

Great Wall

The building of the Great Wall of China, one of the legendary seven wonders of the world, began in 221 BC in an effort to keep Mongol invaders out.  In the 600's AD, the Sui Emperor Yang Di began a huge project of repairing the ancient wall. The costs of rebuilding the wall were enormous.  The construction involved the forced labor of hundreds of thousands of people, many of whom died from the harsh working conditions and were buried in the wall itself.  Costs were also increased by the frequent robbery of supply wagons. 15,000 defense towers and forts were constructed along the walls.  It remains the largest structure ever built anywhere in the world, and is the only human made work on earth visible from orbit.

Porcelain

 It seems that porcelain was not a sudden invention, although some claim that Tao-Yue in the 600's A.D. was the legendary inventor of porcelain. He used so-called 'white clay' (kaolin) which he found along the Yangzte river where he was born. He added other types of clay to produce the first white porcelain, which he sold as 'artificial jade' in the capital Chang-an.  By around 900 AD, porcelain was perfected, incorporating the translucent minerals quartz and feldspar.

Canals & Locks

 Imperial China's construction of waterways to connect different parts of its vast territory produced some of the world's greatest water engineering projects.  One of the most impressive was the building of the Grand Canal.  Construction of the first Grand Canal began in the early 600's to connect the Yellow River (Hwang He) in the north with the Yangzi River (Chiang Jiang) in the south. Once the Grand Canal was in use, people could carry messages and ships could carry rice back and forth.  

Canal locks were another innovation in the 10th century. These allowed boats to go uphill and downhill, by raising or lowering the water level within the lock. This invention allowed boats to travel farther inland.

Roads & Relay Hostels

 Roads and relay hostels, or inns, greatly improved communication and trade throughout the vast land of China. By the late 700's, inns offered horses and food to travelers, and provided places for government officials to stay for the night during long journeys. The system of roads allowed government inspectors, tax collectors, and postal messengers to move long distances. Messengers delivered mail across hundreds of miles. Merchants could carry trade goods such as rice, tea, silk, and seafood without fear of bandits.

Gunpowder

 Around 200 AD, Chinese scientists discovered that an explosive mixture could be produced by combining sulfur, charcoal, and saltpeter (potassium nitrate). The explosive mixture, called huoyao, was used by the military in the 900's during the Tang Dynasty. New weapons were rapidly developed, including rockets that were launched from a bamboo tube.

Mechanical Clock

One of the greatest inventions of the medieval world was the mechanical clock. Yi Xing, a Buddhist monk, made the first model of a mechanical clock in 725 AD.  This clock operated by dripping water that powered a wheel which made one full revolution in 24 hours.  An iron and bronze system of wheels and gears made the clock turn.  This system caused the chiming of a bell on the hour.  

Su Sung's great 'Cosmic Engine' of 1092 was 35 feet high. At the top was a power driven sphere for observing the positions of the stars.  The power for turning it was transmitted from the dripping water by a chain drive. A celestial globe inside the tower turned in synchronization with the sphere above.

Smallpox Inoculation

 The technique of inoculation was first publicly recognized when the son of Prime Minister Wang Dan (957-1017) died of smallpox.  Hoping to prevent the same thing from happening to other family members, Wang Dan summoned physicians from all over China.  A Daoist monk introduced the technique of inoculation to the physicians in the capital.  By the 16th century it was widely practiced against smallpox in China.

Abacus

The Chinese developed the abacus, a counting device,  around 100 AD.  By the 1300's it was perfected and given the form it still has today. The instrument consisted of a rectangular wooden frame with parallel rods. Each rod holds beads as counters. The rods are separated into upper and lower parts by a crossbar.  Each bead above the crosspiece is worth five units, and each below is worth one.  The rungs or rods from right to left indicate place value in powers of ten -- ones, tens, hundred, and so on. With this instrument the Chinese could add, subtract, multiply and divide with remarkable speed.

Spinning Wheel

   

Silk was first made by the Chinese about 4000 years ago. Silk thread is made from the cocoon of the silkworm moth, whose caterpillar eats the leaves of the mulberry tree.  Silk spinners needed a method to deal with the tough, long silk threads. To meet the increasing demand for silk fabric, the Chinese developed the spinning wheel in 1035.  This simple circular machine, easily operated by one person, could wind fine fibers of silk into thread. The invention used a wheel to stretch and align the fibers.  A drive belt made the wheels spin.

Movable Type

The technique of printing with carved wood blocks appeared about the 7th century, early in the Tang dynasty. Block printing reached its golden age during the Song dynasty, in the years 960-1279, as the imperial patronage encouraged the publication of large numbers of books by the central and local governments. Movable type was first invented by Bi Sheng of the Song dynasty in the year 1045 AD. The invention of reusable, moveable type made books cheaper and more available. 

Paper Money

The Chinese invented paper money in the 9th century A.D.  Its original name was 'flying money' because it was so light it could blow out of one's hand. As exchange certificates used by merchants, paper money was quickly adopted by the government for forwarding tax payments. In 1024, the Song government took over the printing of paper money and used it as a medium of exchange backed by deposited "cash" (a Chinese term for metal coins).

*information gathered from link.